Strengths and weaknesses of terrorism research

Strengths and weaknesses of act of act of act of terrorism look intoterrorism peck be termed an constantly evolving dynamic, widely disputed complex phenomenon that finds its grow in psycho-social and political realms. jibe to Lacquer (1999)1and Gordon (2004)2every instance or act of terrorism is inherently different and possess distinctive subjectistics similar to biometrics. As stated by Gordon (2010) futile travails flummox been made to form terrorism typologies according to terrorists methods of operations, regions of the world, constitution and ideologies3. Based on these assertions it is evident that terrorism as a search empyrean is unclear and still in it normative stages and as much(prenominal) l subverts itself to structured, synergized future suppuration.Subsequent to the attacks of kinfolk 11, 2001 terrorism seek experienced a massive influx of scholarly, semi-academic and popular writings from scholars, law enforcement personnel (both retired and activ e), and journalists personation various academic, historic, religious, cultural, ethnic and social perspectives all wanting to siteulate on the so called new phenomenon of new-made terrorism. This sheer thrust according to capital of Mississippi (2007)4has led to the subject matter of Terrorism being transformed into a standal angiotensin-converting enzyme survey of ponder with its possess dedicated journals, enquiry centers, leading scholars and experts, bayion funding opportunities, conferences and university programmes. hike up, Professor Andrew Silke, Director of terrorism studies at the University of East capital of the United Kingdom in an inter s asshole with The Guardian, a UK newspaper dated 3rd July 2007, publicize The rise and rise of Terrorism Studies has claimed that if catamenia prunes continue, more than 90 percentage of all terrorism studies literature will pass been produce post 9/11, 2001, and that a new book on terrorism is published every six hours in the English language.5Also, in a study on Terrorism and knowledge growth d peerless by Dr. Avishag Gordon, ripened Information Expert in the Computer Science Library at the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, in 2004, using publishing info households, it was found that prior to family line 2001, terrorism publications had grown over 234 percent between the period 1988-20016 alone post September 2001, there was an explosion of much(prenominal) a counterbalance that Dr Richard Jackson senior lecturer in international politics at Manchester University believes that scholarly papers in the discipline have increased by 300% since then.7Cognizant of the above terrorism question environment and the act pace of the publication of scat on terrorism, this paper will take away into account a critical examination of Terrorism query using current literature in locate to elucidate the distinguishing aspects, deficiencies and limitations and conclude by providing ideas/ vesti ges on the way forward.During the conduct of the analysis this paper will phthisis supplemental data to draw attention to the evolution of the unrelenting pace of plentiful outputs purporting to be Terrorism Research. The go ones to the conduct of terrorism query, the challenges associated with the field, the comparison to other handle of discipline and the perception of the driving force behind Terrorism Research will all be examined.The Definition DilemmaBefore whatever incision into Terrorism Research can occur and in order to establish a basis for whatever arguments for the development of this essay, the issue of the disappointment to develop a universally accept adequate definition must be discussed. The definition of Terrorism is crucial and the most important insertion upon which to bod because it ultimately warnmines the way in which this and every Research on Terrorism should be conducted.To date there is no universal definitions of terrorism authentic by sch olars, experts, journalists or theorists. So, rather than revisit the seemingly never oddment debate on the definition of terrorism, the paper will adopt Bruce Hoffmans, one of the worlds leading analysts on terrorism definition on terrorism. Hoffman (2005a)8defines terrorism asIneluctably political in aims and motivesViolent-or, equally important, threatens violenceDesigned to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or targetConducted all by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspirative cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) or by individuals or a small collection of individuals directly yieldd, motivated, or inspired by the ideological aims or example of some active terrorist movement and/or its leaders andPerpetrated by a sub-national group or non-state entity.This definition was chosen because it takes from an authoritative source it is encompassing and gives the widest possible reg ard to all actors and all forms of terrorism. The definition elucidates the exact to use power to press individuals to conformity it also conveys the violent nature and attendant resonating misgiving inducing component of the strategy achieved through and through death and destruction moreover, it puts the end state of the strategy into context with the aims and motives of terrorists by specifying the strong political nature. finally the definition combines all the above inferences into a statement whereby the principal implication can be that its expression is quite simply without doubt terrorism. stock-still making this definition operative in whatever debate is anything still easy. A major trouble was that terrorism almost always has a pejorative con nonation and thus falls in the same course of instruction of words such as tyranny and genocide, unlike such comparatively neutral terms such as war and revolution that can be used to convey the same act. ace can take aim to objective and dispassionate look, only one cannot be neutral well-nigh terrorism any more than one can be neutral about slavery and genocide. Thus, defining terrorism became an effort not exclusively to delineate a subject ara but also to watch its illegitimacy. Even the most clinical inquiry was laden with values and thusly political issues. The very study of terrorism implied to some a political decision and or objective.Qualitative, case-study query method has dominated the terrorism event for many geezerhood. Since the number of firstly hand observations in the greater character reference of this spirt is really small, look forers have been cautious to delineate terrorism to scenery the cases under examination. The undersized quantity of observations, regrettably, often disallows unreliable dubious move of the definition. In one country, for instance, hostility against the military might take place, but in the second country it might not. In an assessment of th e first country, one could vary the definition beyond civilian targets to military targets. In an assessment of the second country, one could not adjust the definition to examine the implications of unreliable degrees from minimal to maximal definitions (Lesser, 1999).XYZIn current seek on terrorism in the political science writings, there is plenty of elbow room to tailor the definition of terrorism to identify with its consequences. Specifically, there is no need to decide on one particular definition of terrorism six-fold definitions can be allowed and then the effects can be by trial and error sorted out. Empirical analysis might generate two measures of terrorism one with civilians as the target and the second with both civilians and the military at peace time as the target. Moreover, empirical analysis may salute whether results argon alike or diverse dependent on the measure. And any results would have implications for future theoretical and empirical research (America n Association for the growth of Science, 2004).EXAMINATION OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF TERRORISM RESEARCHTerrorism research has been noted to be somewhat self regulating, though the critiques and re interprets of the palm achievements and failures extend over the bygone two decades. Some of the most important reviews9include key theorists, experts and analysts in the field. The highlighted strengths and weaknesses are examined belowWeaknessesPoor Concepts, Theories and MethodsTerrorism research has been criticized for its less than relentless theories and concepts primarily due(p) to the absence of a definition of terrorism10. This paradox may never ever be resolved however depict suggests that the current snuggle by most luminaries in the field seems to be one of sidestepping the definitional issue in favor of mutation of term for its use according to the circumstances. This approach reeks of interference and points to external motivations according to purposes. The weakness that this approach portrays is reflected in limitation in the research and studies of terrorism.Another criticism levied in Silke (2004)11that highlights poor research methods and procedures is the over reliance on interviews and secondary data as opposed to the outputs of primary research. though there are benefits to be derived from these methodologies, the taken for granted(predicate) limitations override them. If evidence that supports the use of other methodologies were present this would fill out the claim for terrorism research to be an independent discipline with its own theoretical framework. woe in full support for an eclectic approach to methodologies used is move out and thus this lack of complementarity exposes the gaps in terrorism research.Another shortcoming in terrorism research as postulated by Richard Jackson (2007)12is that the outputs tend towards ahistoricity and acontextuality. This view as espoused by Jackson suggests that much of recent terroris m research ignores historical data pre September 2001 and virtually do not take into account experiences of other countries. Most modern researchers and experts tend to view terrorism tabular rasa post September 2001 and consequently refer to terrorist activities as modern terrorism. This misnomer can easily be dispelled as terrorism existed as primordial as 1880. Further there remains a view that terrorism research is acontextual primarily because researchers do not look at terrorist act at bottom the context from which they emerged rather terrorist activity is viewed and analyzed to develop trend and pattern analysis from which extrapolation can occur.Another related flaw as espoused by Jackson (2007)13is that since the events of September 2001 terrorism research tends towards exceptionalizing the experiences of the United States and Al Qaeda. Another expert Louise Richardson (2006)14described this tendency as American Exceptionalism, the find that America is different from (a nd implicitly superior to) the rest of the world. These comments suggests that terrorism researchers had delved in the field without even considering any previous relationship thereby creating a myopia linked to activities post September 2001.In Silke (2004)15Research on Terrorism, Frederick Schulze notes that Schmid and Jongman (1988) identifies that though a lot has been written about Terrorism, it is not empirically based and lacks substance. In fact Schmid and Jongman note because of the lack of rigorous research based literature the works produced are narrative, overly descriptive, derivative, derogatory and prescriptive rather than analytical. These identified flaws adequately tell a story of the quality, rigour and reliability of the current research. Consequently the management of the current terrorism research is expressage to the sexiest topics while gaps in the literature remain unexplored.Terrorism by its very nature is interdisciplinary as asserted by Joshua Sinai in Silke (2004) yet researchers have not collaborated on much integrated work worldwide. Furthermore, interdisciplinarity and synergies amongst fields are crucial to the development and growth of a research field. Collaborative efforts bring varying perspective together that develop sophisticated approaches to research agendas. Moreover interdisciplinarity enhances and pee-pees alternate pathways to achieving solutions that are sometimes elusive.Ranstorp (2006)16stated that In essence interdisciplinary focus and innovation will remain short vital in efforts to develop a critical knowledge base in future terrorism research. It is obvious that for terrorism research to be able to create an expansive valid knowledge base that scientific collaboration across fields must occur. Further in the quest to be recognised as an independent field terrorism research must leverage existing knowledge pools to its advantage.According to Gordon (2010)17, for the terrorism research field to be consider ed mature it must go through the development stages variable that includes collaboration as a foundation principle. Yet it is apparent that in the quest for recognition that individualistic behaviours have subsumed the common disposition approach of using knowledge bases and methods that exist within other disciplines.One of the harshest criticisms levied against the field is that research priorities, projects topics and perspectives are motivated by a problem solving approach funded by governments. Consequently the familiar view held is that research produced on behalf of sovereign nations is tainted and state centric because of the obvious relationships. This espoused view cast doubts on the outcome of sponsored work and questions the ability of researchers to remain independent. Andrew Silke (2004)18has conclude that much terrorism research is driven by policy concerns and is limited to addressing government agendas. This view can at times be brusk as the effects of terrorism will always be a national issue that must be addressed by government. The consequences of any institutional financial political relationship are the risk of ascribed influence peddling. However it can be argued that such a relationship is undeniable to advance any field of research. It is believed that researchers must understand that they should operate within the accepted codes of ethics and conduct and must remain independent lest their credibility and integrity become irreparably damaged.XYZXYZFinally, the adhesive that should hold the terrorism research field together is the unity of focus and the concentration of effort among its luminaries. Sadly all indications are that there is a disparate approach funneled by the advancement of personal agendas. Accordingly the leadership necessitate to close the obvious gaps, to cross fertilize, to synergize and integrate with other existing fields remains inattentive while the crab in a barrel syndrome pervades. A suggestion is for the creation of an association similar to that of the medical profession with the mandatory accreditation of individuals. This approach is seen as a viable option to guide, assess and focus the work to be conducted in the terrorism research field.StrengthsInputs, developments and effectivenessTerrorism researchers for years have been exploring the root causes of the phenomenon in an attempt to negate the effects of the sensible and psychological violence on the wider society. According to Sinai in Silke (2004)19researchers have through the social sciences using accepted theories and methodologies systematically identified, itemized and correlated root causes ranging from general to the specific, including those at the individual, group, societal and governmental levels. This assertion has gived support that researchers have to a comforting degree been able to understand the origins and the structural theories of terrorism thereby assuring the completion of the early developmental stages of the field of terrorism research. Though some early works have been conducted and methodologies, theories and models for understanding the phenomenon of terrorism have been proffered, additional focus on contributory apparatus and processes in which additional aspects and circumstances just act as motivators for terrorist activities are yet to be explored. As well terrorism research has not yet fully embraced and leveraged existing technologies to assist with computational and mapping challenges.Terrorism research has been able to enhance the tracking of day to day terrorist activities with the advent of chronologies electronic databases such as the Memorial institute for the Prevention of Terrorism (MIPT). This advancement has greatly boosted the collection of terrorist activities worldwidely. The examination of the compiled data is significant to the furthering of longitudinal studies, trend analyses, geographic stamping, establishing relationship among groups, mapping strategies employed, determining intensification or deceleration in activities, constitution effectiveness of countermeasures in different geographical location and can in general be useful in assisting with prediction and the impact on societies, be it physical, social, economical or psychological. The downside to heavy reliance on a whoreson such as this is the increased probability that underestimation and wrongful predictions due to the use of arbitrary criteria when inputting data. This can lead to problems associated with the garbage in, garbage out theory.Furthermore the dearth of knowledge generated by current terrorism research has been instrumental in assisting governments in crafting counter terrorism strategies and policies while providing the foundation for the development of emergency management, law enforcement, security and defence agencies doctrine. More specifically, at the tactical level researchers have bequeathd practitioners with useful information on prof iles, character traits, and patterns of behaviors that has allowed law enforcement, security and defence personnel to be able to detect, deter and disable attacks. Moreover terrorism research has assisted government with growth approaches to address, neutralize and manage the effects of the phenomenon of terrorism.CritiqueThe way forwardThe opportunities that are created by the current disarray in the field of terrorism studies are immeasurable. The gaps in existing literature and the lack of focus and unity provide fertile ground for budding researchers to sow intellectual hybrids for the harvest of a plural solution to a universal problem.The time to adopt a more conciliatory approach that creates synergy with other established fields is now or risks the chance of disappearing into ignominy. The prudence of this approach is a greater understanding and the ability to better inform all stakeholders in the interdiction and the management of the effects of terrorism.The thought of be ing the pioneer for the further development of the broader theoretical framework must continue to be an evoke prospect. The need to interrogate the core concepts of the field in order to provide satisfactory definitions and theoretical formulations must be seen as alluring.Opportunities for the alignment of methodology and the structuring of the discipline into topic areas, the apportioning of noted gaps to scholarship must be vigorously pursued as this structured approach will create an environment that generates funding for additional terrorism research.The upgrade in package technologies to better able researchers to understand, predict and forecast activities beckons on the horizons but the initiator is urgently needed.A serious examination of the political and strategic roots of terrorism is also essential if current tendencies towards acontextuality and ahistoricism are to be in effect countered.The establishment of new terrorism research journals as part of an attempt to foster a reflective and critical approach to the field is needed for encouraging the identification and exploitation of original information sources.The need for focus and expansion beyond the state-centric orientation of contemporary research is particularly urgent to change the perception of puppetry and biases.CONCLUSIONIf the benchmark for the acceptance of whether terrorism research field has attained maturity is the voluminous contributions by scholars, experts, theorists and analysts then one can opine that the intended status has been achieved. However, when a comprehensive analysis is conducted to provide insight into a difficult subject area, it is apparent that the field of terrorism research is dichotomous and fragmented. Terrorism research is yet to be considered a complete field primarily because of key issues such as definition, the absence of a theoretical framework, a general lack of focus, variance with interdisciplinarity and the absence of a focused research age nda.Coupled with the stated gaps and the unfitness to replicate and prove research studies, terrorism research as a field continues to be an elusive endeavor. Moreover, it is apparent that terrorism research has not been allowed to evolve through its developmental stages as other fields (the field was not allowed to creep before it learned to walk).Based on the events of September 2001, the research field appeared to have been given an injection akin to growth hormone a forbidden synthetic human growth stimulant that has agonistic its maturity. This premature development which is without a solid foundation and littered with potency dangers and pitfalls is attempting to force its way into becoming an established research field, without first paid its dues. Consequently the environment has had a proliferation of works purporting to be legitimate discourse.Further the statistics from Gordon (2004) attest to the fact that the field has seen the most single author contributions than any other field of research. This must be worrisome as the interpretations can only suggest the appearance of some cultist fad which will finally wither.The concerns at this time must be what will be the trip out to turn around this annoying trend? The answers lie with the experts, scholars, analysts and researchers and the ability to come together and re-focus a field that is critical to the continued existence of the global population.The responsibilities associated with terrorism research and understanding of the importance to the decrease of the fear of terrorism to the world must be the dilutive to the greed and egotistical aura that infiltrate the field today.